REPORT 


TX 393 
. B4 

Copy 1 


ON THE 




BREADSTUFFS OF THE UNITED STATES, 


MADE TO 


THE COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS, 


LEWIS C. BECK, M. 1). 

J f 


WASHINGTON: 

PRINTED BY WENDELL AND VAN BENTIiU YSEN. 


1849 . 






























































































m 











t 


$ 


REPORT-. 


Rutgers’ College, 

New Brunswick , N. J., December 15, 1S48. 

Sir: I beg leave to submit, in as concise a manner as possible, 
the results of my researches in regard to the breadstuffs of the Uni¬ 
ted States since April last. The work has been prosecuted in ac¬ 
cordance with the instructions which I have received from you; 
and I hope its execution, thus far, will commend itself to your fa¬ 
vor and to that of the public. Being impressed with its importance, 
I have spared no pains to prepare myself for the faithful discharge 
of the trust with which you have been pleased to honor me. 

I deem it proper to state distinctly that my constant aim has 
been to render this investigation useful. My object has been to 
show in the simplest manner, and with as few technicalities as pos¬ 
sible, how the value of the various breadstuffs may be determined, 
their injury guarded against, and their adulterations detected. 
Whilst I am by no means insensible to the importance of accuracy, 
and yield a willing homage to those who are engaged in minute and 
careful ultimate analyses, I supposed that the purpose which you 
had in view would be best accomplished by the employment, of 
such processes as may be easily understood and even repeated by 
all those who feel sufficient interest in the subject to read the de¬ 
scription which I shall give of them. I concur entirely in the re¬ 
marks made by a reviewer of the first report on coals suited to the 
(British) steam navy, u that the neglect of government to aid sci¬ 
ence is due, in a great measure, to the mistaken views of scientific 
men. They have too often overlooked or disregarded those mat¬ 
ters which have a practical tendency, which politicians alone con¬ 
sider of importance.” u Men engaged in maintaining the balance 
of power and regulating the complicated machinery of a great 
commercial and manufacturing commonwealth, however capacious 
their minds, cannot be expected to entertain the theoretical views 
of the philosopher, who sacrifices his knowledge of the world to 
his love of science.” 

I thought it proper thus to announce the plan which has been 
adopted in these researches, to render them useful to the many , 
without attempting to make additions to the already accumulated 
stores of th z few. As the people, through their representatives, 
have furnished the means for carrying on this work, they are enti¬ 
tled to receive all the benefits which are to be derived from it. 




4 


I have on iy to add that my attention, thus far, has been almost 
exclusively directed to wheat and wheat flour. I propose during 
the next year, should the work be continued, to extend the exami¬ 
nation to such samples of these as may hereafter be received, and 
then to proceed to that of maize and maize meal, which have re¬ 
cently become such important articles of export. 

I have the honor to be your obedient servant, 

LEWIS. C. BECK. 


To the honorable Edmund Burke, 

Commissioner of Patents. 


REPORT. 

Agriculture, commerce, and the arts, constitute the chief busi¬ 
ness of the industrious portions of our race, and it is to the physi¬ 
cal peculiarities of a country that we are chiefly to refer the pre¬ 
dominance of one or other of these pursuits. Thus England, with 
her vast mineral wealth, and her dense population, must almost of 
necessity be a manufacturing nation; and, although she is also 
noted for her extended commerce, and her improved agriculture, 
the great attention which she has paid to the latter, may, perhaps, 
be fairly ascribed to those peculiar views concerning the inter¬ 
change between nations which have heretofore- prevailed. The 
rich a^nd valuable mines of the central portions of the continent 
of Europe, and the numerous arts which can flourish only in their 
immediate vicinity, must ever give occupation to a large portion 
of their inhabitants. Comparatively few commercial advantages 
are enjoyed by them, and the produce of their agriculture sel¬ 
dom rises above the amount which is necessary for the supply of 
their own immediate wants. In all these countries, therefore, the 
failure of a single crop is the cause of serious apprehension, and 
in some of them, as in Austria, although a large proportion of the 
population is engaged in agriculture, there is need of a yearly im¬ 
portation of breadstuff's. This has been ascribed to a defective 
mode of tillage, but I am inclined to believe that it arises in part 
at least, if not entirely, from the high price of the land. It is the 
large returns which the farmer must extort from the soil in order 
to meet the interest of the heavy investment which discourages him 
in his efforts, and which at length has the effect of diminishing the 
amount of the agricultural products. All the appliances of science 
and art may be called into requisition to increase the yield of the 
soil, but every improvement of this kind only serves to increase 
the price of the land and the amount of rent which must be raised 
from it. When we look at the contrast which the United States 
present in this respect, we need not wonder, that while travellers 
speak in raptures of the agriculture of France and Belgium, Ger¬ 
many and England, the famished population of some of those 
countries has been fed by the surplus produce of a comparatively 
rude mode of tillage. 

During the year 1847, breadstuff's to the value of $43,000,000, 



I 


5 




were exported from this country to Great Britain and Ireland 
alone. The Vast agricultural resources of the United States were 
then ior the first time duly appreciated. Notwithstanding the quan¬ 
tity exported during the present year hears no proportion to that 
of the preceeding one, there can be little doubt that our country 
is destined to be the granary of the world. We cannot boast of 
those mineral riches which are found elsewhere; still deposites of 
iron ore and coal, those most valuable products, exist here in great 
abundance. But our chief treasure is the soil, and the immense 
extent of Qur republic, and the liberal policy which has been pur¬ 
sued in regard to the disposition of its lands, places it in the power 
of almost every inhabitant to become the owner of a domain, which 
in Europe could be possessed only by the favored few. 

It is a common mistake that land which is in the highest state 
of cultivation, and yields the largest crops, is necessarily the most 
valuable. It is stated by Boussingault, that a field in the neigh¬ 
borhood of Pampeluna, where the rent of land is extremely low, 
gave a profitable crop of wheat, although the yield was not more 
than from six and a half to seven and a half bushels per acre. 
u An English farmer,” says Washington in a letter addressed to 
Arthur Young, u must have a very indifferent opinion of our soil 
when he hears that with us an acre produces no more than eight or 
ten bushels of wheat, but he must not forget that in all countries 
where land is cheap and labor is dear, the people prefer cultivating 
much to cultivating well.” 

It is this very extent of our country, and the cheapness of the 
land, which now, as at the date of the letter of Washington, con¬ 
tribute to render our comparatively rude culture the most profit¬ 
able in the world. Thus, while the average of the produce of wheat 
in the United States is not probably above 15 or 16 bushels to the 
acre, that in Germany is more than 25 bushels; in England, 25 or 
26; and in France, 24. Still, as has been already stated, the amount 
of breadstuffs raised here, far exceeds that produced in either of 
the countries above named. And the same consideration, viz: 
cheapness of land, together with the rapid and cheap rate at which, 
by machinery, the crop harvested and made ready for the miller, 
must give to the western States and Territories great advantages 
for the cultivation of the cereal grain.* 

As there is no probability that, for many years to come, our 
population will be over-crowded, and the price of good cultivable 
land be much increased, it is easy to see what must become the 
leading occupation of the multitude who will here seek refuge from 
the poverty and oppression of other countries. The truth of this 


* Mr. O’Reilly stated at one of the meetings of the New York State Agricultsral Society, 
during the winter of 1844, that the product of the wheat lands, between Seneca lake and 
the Niagara river, had not, for the preceding three or four years, exceeded the low average 
of eleven or twelve bushels per acre. The land in western New York generally bears a 
high price, and the problem to be solved is, whether by a more efficient system of agriculture 
the average yield can be so much increased as to afford a return for the investment. What 
will be the result may be inferred from the well known fact that a large proportion of the 
wheat flour, with the “ Genesee and Oswego” brands, is obtained from wheat grown m the 
far western States. 





6 


proposition will probably be quite apparent to those whose atten¬ 
tion has been directed to the subject. But a large number of our 
citizens have no just idea of the agricultural resources of the 
United States. One object of this report, therefore, is to spread 
out the facts, and to give them the widest publicity; to show, in¬ 
deed, that while commerce and the arts must give employment to 
a great number of persons, our great business is agriculture; and 
that the true interests of the country will be promoted by giving to 
this pursuit all necessary encouragement." 

I have said that our mode of culture is still comparatively rude. 
It was quaintly remarked to a traveller by the gardener of Drum¬ 
mond castle, that “if science once gets into the farmer’s ground it 
penetrates into the very heart of a nation.” This is perhaps true;* 
but it must be confessed that, thus far, the influence of science 
upon agriculture has been very trifling when compared with 
the vast improvements w T hich it has effected in the arts. The 
difference proceeds principally from two causes assigned by 
Count Chaptal: “The first is, that the greater part of the phe¬ 
nomena offered to us by agriculture, are the effects of the laws of 
vitality, which govern the functions of plants, and these laws are 
still in a great measure unknown to us; whilst in the arts which 
are exercised upon rude and inorganic matter, all is regulated, all 
is produced, by the action either of physical laws only, or of sim¬ 
ple affinity, which are known to us. The second cause is, that in 
order to apply the physical sciences to agriculture, it is necessary 
to study their operations profoundly, not only in the closet, but in 
the field.” It will not, therefore, appear surprising that the re¬ 
searches which have been made in regard to plants have often as¬ 
sumed a wrong direction, and have not led to those important re¬ 
sults which were promised upon the one side and expected upon 
the other. Thus most of the analyses of the proximate principles 
of plants, not having been made upon such as are in a perfectly 
pure state, are to be considered only as approximations of the 
truth. The same remark will, in a great measure, apply to the 
numerous determinations of the quality and quantity of the ash 
obtained by the combustion of the grains used as breadstuff's. “The 
grain is an assemblage of various distinct parts, differing from one 
another in composition, and varying also very much in their rela¬ 
tive proportions. So also the dried stem of a plant, the entire 
straw of a cereal grass, may be burned in like manner. But this, 
too, is an assemblage of many parts. The exterior less vascular 
portion, the interior full of vessels, the fluids which circulate 


*1 say “ perhaps.” beeause in agriculture, as in all well conducted enterprises, every 
thing depends upon a comparison of an estimate of the expenses with an estimate of the 
profits which accrue from them. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is nevertheless true, as 
stated by Chaptal, that a farmer may be ruined by a good harvest. When science, therefore, 
suggests a lavish expenditure simply for the sake of insuring a large yield per acre, she does 
a positive injury. The end of those who follow at random all the innovations proposed, is 
invariably disastrous. 




7 


through them, all contain their peculiar inorganic substances, and 
all vary almost endlessly in their relative proportions.”* 

Similar objections might be urged against the analyses of soils 
which have been so vigorously prosecuted by many chemists. 
That the facts which have thus accumulated may have some value, 
is not to be doubted; but they must after all be considered as only 
introductory to researches conducted with a more just apprecia¬ 
tion of their true influence upon the improvement of agriculture. 
It is to be feared that in many cases these almost useless labors 
have been suggested by the crude and hasty generalizations, which, 
unfortunately within a few years past, have too often usurped the 
place of patient inquiry. A recent writer has well observed, that 
“of the classes which have been thus led away there has been none 
which has been so far misguided as the sober one of farmer. It 
is to him that the vegetable quack appeals, offering, in the appli¬ 
cation of chemical manures, electricity, magnetism, and other 
agents, harvests more golden than the world had ever seen be¬ 
fore.” 

I trust it will not be inferred from any of the remarks which I 
have made, that I undervalue the importance of physical science 
in the improvement of agriculture. On the contrary, I doubt not 
that with a right appreciation of its objects and a true direction of 
its labors, it is destined to contribute greatly to increasing the pro¬ 
ductiveness of the soil. But such results cannot be immediately 
realized. “Years of experiment must pass by, numerous failures 
must be experienced, before the real advantages of scientific farm¬ 
ing will be evident.” It is sincerely to be hoped that the false 
expectations which have been from time to time held out by 
visionary men, may not have the effect of exciting in the minds of 
agriculturists a prejudice against all the improvements which may 
hereafter be proposed. 

The chief breadstuffs of the United States are wheat, rye, maize, 
and buckwheat. Of these, the first is by far the most important, 
and it is to its history, culture, and chemical examination, that 
particular attention is now to be directed. 

Wheat .—Wheat is the principal breadstuff of the United States 
and of most European nations. This, as well as the other cereal 
grasses, has probably come to us from the east; but it has been 
so much changed and improved by culture, that its connexion can¬ 
not be satisfactorily traced to any species of the genus now known 
to be growing wild. Of all the cereals, it is that which requires 
most heat, and its culture first begins to be of importance below 


* The above remarks are from Prot. J. F. W. Johnston’s advertisement to the English 
translation of Mulder’s chemistry, part iii. Prof. Johnston has himself been largely en¬ 
gaged in the kind of researches which he now characterizes as indeed possessing some agri* 
cultural value, but which must be entirely dismissed by the exact physiologist. To set this 
matter in a still stronger light, he adds the following: “An amusing English chemist lately 
dried and burned an entire mouse, and, from the results of his combustion, drew grave re¬ 
sults in regard to points which lie at the very confines of our existing knowledge. He 
might as well have put a whole man in his crucible or his combustion tube, and reasosed 
opon the nature of the ash, or_the proportions of the gases he had collected.” 



8 


60° north latitude in Europe, and considerably below that line on 
our continent. From the meteorological observations which have 
been made, we infer that a mean heat of at least 39° Fahrenheit is 
necessary for the growth of wheat, and that during three or four 
months. The mean summer heat must rise above 55° Fahrenheit. 
It does not, however, bear tropical heat well; in countries within 
the tropics it first occurs at altitudes which in climate correspond 
with the sub-tropical and temperate zones.* 

There is a fact stated by the author just quoted which exhibits 
in a striking manner the advantages our country must possess for 
raising and transporting the produce of this important cereal. It 
is, that although wheat is very productive and of excellent quality 
in Chili and the republic of Rio de la Plata, and immense quan¬ 
tities are sent to Peru and even around Cape Horn to Rio Janeiro, 
yet North American flour is sold at the market of Valparaiso, and 
the bakers are obliged to buy it, as it is cheaper than the flour 
made in the country, because there are no roads in the interior, 
and wages are exceedingly high from want of sufficient hands. 

There are few parts of the United States in which wheat may 
not be raised. But the productiveness of the crop is influenced by 
various circumstances, as soil, climate, and expense of transport to 
the great commercial depots. These, and the more profitable cul¬ 
tivation of other articles, as tobacco, rice, cotton, and the sugar 
cane, have nearly fixed the southern limit of the wheat growing 
region of the United States in North Carolina.j- The particular 
districts, however, in which the culture of this cereal is most suc¬ 
cessfully prosecuted, are the western parts of New York and 
Pennsylvania, Ohio and the northwestern States and Territories. 
The rich and virgin soil of the western prairies seems to be pe¬ 
culiarly adapted to the growth of wheat; and the great lines of 
communication which are already established between these and 
the Atlantic cities afford every facility for the transport of the sur¬ 
plus produce. 

It has been already remarked that the profits of the culture of 
this cereal do not depend upon the yield per acre, but upon the 
cheapness of the land, and the economy practised in its manage¬ 
ment. The want of precise information’upon these cardinal points 
renders the statements which have been made in regard to the pro¬ 
ductiveness of wheat in various parts of the world of little practi¬ 
cal value. Thus when we are told by Meyen that fn Prussia the 
average produce of wheat is not more than five or six fold of the 
seed; that in Hungary and Croatia it is from eight to ten fold; and 
that in some parts of Mexico the produce in favorable years is 
from twenty-four to thirty-five fold, the information is of no use 
to the farmer, because the relative expenses of the culture and the 
value of the crop are not stated. 


* Meyen’s Outlines of the Geography of Plants. 

fMr. J. B. O’Neall, in an address before the Agricultural Society of South Carolina, es¬ 
timates the value of the flour imported into that State at $260,000. of corn $150,000, of oats 
jpeas, and hay, $585,000. 


✓ 






9 


Notwithstanding what has been said concerning the profitable 
culture of wheat in large portions of the United States, and the 
probability that the great west will hereafter furnish the principal 
supply for export, we should by no means overlook those causes 
which exert an influence upon the productiveness and quality of 
this grain. It has been ascertained without doubt that the real 
value of wheat and of the other cereals and breadstuffs, depends 
mainly upon the proportion of gluten and albumen which they 
contain, their starch, glucose and dextrine, or gum, not being con¬ 
sidered nutritive. It appears also that wheat exceeds all the other 
cereals in the quantity of nutritive matter which it yields. Another 
advantage which it possesses is, that it furnishes also a greater 
quantity of flour; for fourteen pounds of wheat yield thirteen 
pounds of flour, while fourteen pounds of oats yield only eight 
pounds, and an equal quantity of barley but twelve pounds.* 

That wheat is peculiarly sensible to the effects of soil and cli¬ 
mate appears to be a well established f&ct. It is stated that even 
in different parts of England the crops and their produce are very 
various. The Sicilian and southern wheat generally contains a 
larger proportion of gluten than that from more northern countries. 
This, no doubt, arises from its more rapid growth, its harder and 
tougher grain, and its less proportion of moisture. Hence, also, it 
keeps better, and commands a higher price in market, especially 
when required for exportation. I have reason to believe, however, 
that the superiority of southern wheat has usually been over-esti¬ 
mated, and that the proof almost always adduced of its containing 
more gluten than that from the north, viz: its employment in the 
manufacture of macaroni and vermicelli, is by no means conclu¬ 
sive. f 

One of the most important points .connected with the subject of 
wheat and -wheat flour, is the proportion of water or moisture which 
they contain. We have the high authority of Boussingault for the 
statement that, in France, “ it is undoubtedly in consequence of 
the large quantity of -water which the northern wheats contain, that 
we meet with such indifferent success when we attempt to keep 
them for any length of time in our granaries. The wheat of Al¬ 
sace, for example, frequently contains 16 to 20 per cent, of mois¬ 
ture, and I have ascertained by various experiments that it is al¬ 
most impossible to keep it without change in vessels hermetically 
sealed. To secure its keeping, the proportion of water must be re- 


* Burnett’s Outlines of Botany. - 

f According to th? analysis ot Professor Johnston, the fine flour ot the celebrated Amain, 
or macaroni wheat, orougnt from Italy by Colonel Hamilton, contains, in 100 parts, 13.30 of 
water and 11.62 of protein compounds, (chiefly gluten.) This is not above the average ot 
the proportion of gluten contained even in our New York and western flours. Mr. vV alter, 
in his “ Letters from the Continent,” describes the process for fabricating macaroni, which 
is very simple, and adds: “ It is my firm belief that if any spirited individual would com¬ 
mence its manufacture (in England) on an extensive scale, the Italian macaroni would soon 
cease to be an article of importation .”—(London Quarterly Journal of Agriculture , vol.II., 
v. 462.) I have no doubt that this manufacture might be successfully carried on in various 
parts of the United States, especially if some care was used in the selection of those kinds of 
flour which are known to be rich in gluten. 





10 


duced to from 8 to 10 per cent., and this is nearly the quantity of 
moisture contained in the hard and horny wheat of warm coun¬ 
tries.* * * § 

In five analyses of London flours by Mr. J. Mitchell, the propor¬ 
tion of water varies from 14.10 to 17.40 per cent.f 

The proportions of water in the above samples range much higher 
than those given in the analyses of various flour# performed by 
Yauquelin, which are from 8 to 12 per cent. They are also higher 
than those in the United States flours, the range of moisture being 
in the samples which I have analysed from 12 to 14 per cent. 

This difference in the proportion of water, which seems to be a 
matter of so much consequence,*is undoubtedly, in part, due to the 
difference in the climate of the region in which the wheat is grown. 
This, indeed, is so well understood to be true, that the amount of 
bread obtained from different kinds of wheat flour is referred to the 
same cause. Thus u it has been shown by a comparative experi¬ 
ment tried some years ago upon Scotch and English wheat of ap¬ 
parently equal quality, that a quarter of the latter, though yield¬ 
ing rather less flour, yet when made into bread gave 13 lbs. more 
than the former. This is accounted for by the greater strength of 
sunshine, under the climate of England, having an effect upon the 
grain when ripening, which occasions the flour to absorb more 
water in the formation of dough. 

From experiments which seem to be trustworthy, it appears that 
the Alabama and the southern wheat flours, generally, yield more 
bread than the northern or western. The gain in favor of the 
Alabama, as compared with the Cincinnati, is said to be 20 per 
cent. It is also stated by one of the most extensive London bakers, 
that American flour will absorb 8 or 10 per cent, more of its own 
weight of water in manufacturing it into bread or biscuit than the 
English wheat. The English wheat of the same variety with the 
American is invariably a larger hnd plumper berry. This is attri¬ 
buted to the longer time required for ripening in that compara¬ 
tively cooler and damper climate. The American, on the con¬ 
trary, in ripening under a hot sun, evaporates a larger proportion 
of water, and leaves the farina in a more condensed state, and 
when exposed again to moisture in cooling, it absorbs the addi¬ 
tional quantity above stated. This is an important fact of which 
the dealer and consumer should be fully aware.§ 

No apology is necessary for the details which will be presented 
concerning the effect of water or moisture upon this cereal, as it is 
a : subject worthy of the most serious consideration. Although, as 
has been observed, the proportion of water in the wheat and wheat 
flour of the United States is generally less than in those of Eng¬ 
land, France, and the north of Europe, it is often in sufficient 
quantity to cause great losses, especially when shipped to tropical 


* Rural Economy. 

t Treatise on the Falsification of Food, &tc. 

j Penny Magazine, vol. 75. 

§ From an article in the Toronto (Canada) Herald. 



11 


countries. So early as the year 1814, attention was directed to 
this in a valuable series of papers published by Mr. Jonas Hum¬ 
bert, of New York,* a large dealer in flour, and at one time a 
deputy inspector of that article. He states that since the revolu¬ 
tion, the price of the New York wheat flour in the markets of Eu¬ 
rope and the West Indies had been gradually falling below that of 
Pennsylvania and Virginia. He asserts as the result of his own 
experiments, that the New York flour is equal to that obtained 
from wheat raised in any other State or country; and he attributes 
the deterioration in the price of the former to carelessness on the 
part of those who are engaged in its preparation and shipment. 
Among the points which he enumerates are, a want of attention to 
the ventilation and proper drying of the grain before it is ground, 
the rapid and improper mode of grinding, regrinding the middlings, 
and mixing therewith the portion first ground,! an d also the still 
more objectionable practice, perhaps still followed, of mixing old 
and spoiled flour with newly ground wheat. 

It is stated that in Poland, where the ventilation and drying are 
continued for some time, wheat has been preserved sound and good 
for half a century; its age never does it injury, and such wheat is 
said to yield handsomer and better flour than that obtained from 
the grain more recently harvested.{ In Dantzic, the preparation 
for keeping wheat continues for a year and sometimes longer; after 
this period it is often kept for seven years perfectly sound in the 
large granaries of that place, although surrounded by the sea. 

In regard to American wheat and wheat flour, it may be remarked, 
that the proportion of water naturally existing in them is often 
increased by carelessness in harvesting the grain, and in its trans¬ 
port and storage. In one sample of Indiana wheat flour recently 
analysed, which was sour and had but little more than one half the 
usual quantity of gluten, the injury was probably caused by the 
hurried mode of packing, for the changes above noticed occurred 
before the opening of summer. Sometimes, however, our flour is 
spoiled by being stored in damp, warm, and ill ventilated ware¬ 
houses. The books of one inspector of the city of New York, 
shows, that in 1847 he inspected 218,679 barrels of sour and musty 
flour. He certifies that in this amount he is of opinion that there 


* Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts in the State of New York, 
vols. Ill and IV. 

f Mr. Humbert objects to the mixing of the produce of the first and second grinding, and 
putting up the whole for superior flour. “ To the eye,” he says, “ this mass appears very 
fine; but when mixed with w r ater it is very deficient in elasticity, and on being w’orked with 
the hand, is similar to clay mixed w T ith water.” The mode of management here spoken of 
is no doubt resorted to from improper motives; but whatever may be the difficulties in work¬ 
ing such a mixture, it so happens that it contains more nutritive matter than the fine flour 
alone. But of this, more hereafter. 

f It will be seen, however, that the flour from the samples of Poland w T heat which I have 
analysed, yielded comparatively small proportions of gluten. All the samples were in ex¬ 
cellent condition, and seemed to have sustained no injury by shipment. But from some ex¬ 
periments which I have made, I am induced to believe that wheat which has been long kept 
may suffer a diminution in the amount of gluten without presenting any external evidence of 
the change w T hich has taken place. Wheat flour, when carefully managed in the mode here¬ 
after to be described, retains its nutritive matter in a more stable form. If this view is cor¬ 
rect, it should have some influence in determining the best mode of keeping breadstufls for 
future use or for shipment 



12 


was a loss sustained of $250,000.* But as no flour that is known 
to be sour or bad is inspected, this statement gives a very imper¬ 
fect idea of the loss incurred, even in that city. The total amount 
of loss for the whole United States arising from chemical changes 
in breadstuff's by internal moisture, has been estimated at from 
$3,000,000 to $5,000,000. 

Some remarks upon this subject, recently published! by Mr. 
Brondgeest, of Hamilton, Canada west, deserve to be here intro¬ 
duced. This gentleman has paid much attention to the preser vation 
of food, both as a merchant and as president of the board of trade 
of Montreal and of Hamilton. He notices an article on the u Pre^ 
serration of Food, 5 ’ in the January number of the Westminster, the 
author of which proposes the exclusion of air, by an air pump or 
otherwise, as a remedy for the injuries sustained by breadstuff’s, 
and very justly observes that these extreme measures are wholly 
unnecessary, as arrangements perfectly feasible will answer the 
purpose. He admits the necessity of something being done, as 
u the present sjstem is wasteful, and contrary in many respects to 
common sense; the warehousing of grain is defective in every point 
of view. The common mode of shipping wheat or other gain in 
bulk, is the cause of injury with American grain, and I doubt not 
also with the European. The emptying of. grain loose into barges 
not over dry;| spray and moisture on the voyage to the shipping 
port; exposure to weather while being shipped, damp lining boards, 
damp vessels, damp during the voyage, and then again being ex¬ 
posed in a lighter and put away in a damp warehouse, or in a low 
situation on the bank of a river; all tend to the destruction even 
of the finest particles of grain.” 

As remedies for all these injurious influences, Mr. Brondgeest 
proposes the shipment of grain in barrels like flour, and the proper 
kiln-drying of such varieties as are known not to keep well. The 
souring of flour, either on the river or sea voyage, or after ware¬ 
housing, he adds, “can be perfectly prevented by the use of the 
kiln, either to the flour, or the wheat prior to grinding; one- 
third to one-fifth of the wheat being highly dried makes the whole 
keep perfectly for years, and that third or. fifth may be of the 
cheap spring grain, making much stronger and better flour; but 
which if not kiln-dried would sour the whole.” 

In the report of the Commissioner of Patents, dated March, 
1844, there are some statements of interest in regard to kiln-dried 
flour and meal. From these it appears that Ohio flour, after hav- 


* Observations on the Production, Manufacture, and Preservation of the Cereal Grains j 
by J. R. Stafford. 

t Westminster Review, for October, 1848. 

% A gentleman residing in the city of Albany, N. Y., informed me that during the past sea¬ 
son he witnessed an operation which, if generally performed, will sufficiently account for all 
the losses sustained in the shipment of the cereal grains. Several persons were engaged in 
transferring wheat from a canal boat to a river barge ; and, while this was going; on, it was 
the business of one of them to sprinkld the grain quite freely with water, containing in so¬ 
lution a portion of common salt. As soon as one pail-full was exhausted, another was pre¬ 
pared ; and the effusion was continued until the work was completed. The addition of tho 
*alt to the water was a mere cover for a really fraudulent and most reprehensible operation. 



13 


ing been subjected to the drying process, was kept in the southern 
and South American ports in good merchantable order, and in 
weather in which other flour not thus prepared invariably spoiled. 
The process ot drying, here noticed, was conducted by the em¬ 
ployment of hot air; and Mr. Gill, who claims the invention, 
states that 18 pounds of water are thus expelled from a barrel of 
flour. 

There can be no doubt, therefore, that the removal of a portion 
of the water which wheat flour and maize meal naturally contain, 
is the easiest and best means of preserving them. But the drying 
process, simple as it may seem, requires to be carried on with 
great care. The passage of the grain or flour, however rapidly, 
over highly heated surfaces is apt to scorch, and thus give them 
an unpleasant flavor. ' From the rapid evolution of the moisture 
in the form of steam by the heat thus applied, unless proper ven¬ 
tilation be also secured, further injury will probably result. The 
steam again condensing into water upon the cooling of the flour, 
may accumulate in particular parts of the mass operated on, and 
thu&, perhaps, render it at least equally as liable to injury as it 
would have been without the employment of this process. 

Another fact which I have observed m those samples of wheat 
flour that have been exposed to a degree of heat high enough to 
expel all the water is, that the gluten is less tough and elastic— 
a proof that its quality has been impaired. It is probable that the 
proportions of dextrine and glucose may thus also be increased at 
the expense of the starch. Under these circumstances, a subse¬ 
quent exposure to moisture and a slight elevation of temperature, 
establishes the lactic acid fermentation, which, I suppose, is the 
chief cause of the souring of flour. 

The advantages to be derived from artificial drying, are more fully 
attained by the invention patented by Mr. J. R. Stafford in 1847, 
than by any other plan with which I am acquainted. It is based 
upon the process for drying organic bodies usually adopted in the 
laboratory. The grain or flour is brought into contact with a sur¬ 
face of metal heated by steam, and a due degree of ventilation, so 
important to the completion of the drying, is secured. As the 
heat is not raised above that of boiling water, there is no danger 
of injuring the quality, color, or flavor of the substances subjected 
to its action. The heat is, moreover, uniform, and the expense is 
said to be less than that of the mode of drying heretofore gene¬ 
rally adopted. By Mr. Stafford’s apparatus 16 or 17 pounds of 
water are expelled from each barrel of flour; this reduces the pro¬ 
portion of w r ater to four or five per cent., an amount too small to 
be productive of injury. Absolute dryness cannot be easily at¬ 
tained except by a long exposure of the flour to the heat, and it is 
not required for its preservation; a reduction of the amount ot 
water to the small per centage just stated, has been found to be 
amply sufficient to secure this object, I cannot, in my opinion, 
render a more important service to dealers in breadstuff*, than to 
recommend strongly the employment of this or a similar process 
of drying. ♦ 


14 


After the proper ventilation and drying of the grain has been 
effected, there is still another point deserving of some considera¬ 
tion. This is the absorptive power of the different kinds of flour, 
which I have found by experiment to be subject to considerable 
variation. The amount of moisture absorbed by the various sam¬ 
ples which have been tried, after having been brought to a state 
of absolute dryness, ranges from 8 to 11.65 per cent, by an ex¬ 
posure to the air of a room, for from 18 to 24 hours. This differ¬ 
ence in the hygrometic character of flours, must, I think, have an 
influence upon their preservation, and will perhaps account for the 
fact, that with the same degree of carelessness and the same expo¬ 
sure, some kinds are more liable to spoil than others. The remedies 
for all the difficulties to be apprehended from this source, are the 
employment of tight barrels, and the avoidance of all unnecessary 
exposure of their contents to the air. 

Some remarks may be added more definitely to explain the 
various modes in which wheat flour, especially, is injured by 
the presence of an undue proportion of water under the influence 
of a warm climate. The general result is a diminution in the 
quantity of gluten, or such a change in its quality as renders it 
unfit to produce good panjfication. It sometimes also favors the 
formation of sporules of different kinds of mushrooms which are 
afterwards developed in the bread. 

Dumas states that the wheat of 1841, exhibited in 1842, during 
a very warm summer, this defect in a very great degree. When 
these mushrooms were developed, the temperature was much 
elevated, and the bread soon disappeared, leaving only a reddish 
and disgusting mass. 

The number of sporules was much diminished by the thorough 
washing of the infected grain, followed by prompt desiccation. Ey 
reducing the proportion of water, increasing the dose of salt, and 
finally by raising the temperature of the oven, the development 
was in a measure prevented.* 

A few years since, I observed reddish sporules similar to those 
above noticed in a sample of New Jersey flour. The change took 
place in twenty-four hours after it had been made into a paste with 
water. On repeating the experiment, the same result followed. 

According to Dumas, moisture and heat which often cause such 
changes in the most important constituent of wheat flour, produce 
very little effect upon the starch which it contains. Although it is 
with some hesitation that I dissent from such high authority, the 
following facts appear to me to show that this idea is an incorrect 
one: 

Starch is known to be composed of particles which are insol¬ 
uble in cold water, but when exposed to a heat of 180° F., the 
pellicle of the grain bursts, and the contents are liberated. In a 
state of solution, it is quickly converted into dextrine and glucose, 
or grape sugar, by the addition of a small quantity of diastase.f If 


* Dumas, Chimie Appliqu^e aux Arts. 

t This is a peculiar nitrogenous principle which exists in the grain of the cereals after 
germination commences, 



15 


this mixture be kept in a warm place for a few days, it acquires a 
new property, viz: that of converting the glucose into lactic acid. 
This is denominated the lactic acid fermentation; and, as I have 
before suggested, it is probably one of the causes of the souring 
of flour when exposed to high summer heats in its ordinary moist 
condition. Hence it will be found that, while in sour flour the 
quantity of gluten is usually diminished, or its quality injured,, 
the proportions of glucose and dextrine are also, in many cases, 
increased at the expense of the starch—a change which precedes 
the development of the lactic fluid. 

One of the best modes of determining the real value of wheat 
and other flours, is to examine the bread made from them. The 
process of panification brings out all their defects, and as the re¬ 
searches upon breadstuffs are conducted chiefly with the view of 
ascertaining their suitableness for the manufacture of bread, it af¬ 
fords a good standard of comparison for the various samples sub¬ 
jected to experiment. It should be remembered, however, that 
bread is sometimes adulterated for the very purpose of enabling 
those who are engaged in its fabrication to use the poorer kinds of 
flour. Thus, Dumas states that in Belgium and the north of France, 
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) has long been introduced into the 
manufacture of bread. By the employment of this salt, the bakers 
can use flour of middling and mixed quality; less labor is required 
in its preparation, the panification is more speedy, and by its addi¬ 
tion a larger quantity of water is taken up.* 

The use of alum in the fabrication of bread seems to have been 
practiced from a remote period. This, it is said, also secures to 
the baker the advantage of employing inferior kinds of wheat 
flour, and even of mixing with the farina of beans and peas, with¬ 
out apparently injuring the quality of the bread. 

The alkaline carbonates, the carbonate of magnesia, chalk, pipe 
clay, and plaster of Faris, have all been used, either to correct the 
acidity of damaged flour, to preserve the moisture, or to increase 
the weight and whiteness of the bread. But it need scarcely to be 
observed that all these substances, with perhaps the exception of 
small additions of the alkaline carbonates, must render the bread 
unwholesome. Fortunately, however, the presence of most of 
them can be quite easily detected. 

Other frauds which have been resorted to are more difficult of 
detection; but these are, happily, less prejudicial to health, al¬ 
though not always perfectly harmless. Among these may be men¬ 
tioned the adulteration of wheat flour with potato starch, the flour 
of leguminous plants, buckwheat, rice, linseed, &c. Mareska, in 
a recent paper, states that he has had occasion to examine several 
samples in which these frauds had been practiced, and he describes 
several processes by which their occurence may be ascertained.! 

According to a statement made by a quartermaster in the United 


* Traits de Chimie Appliqude aux Arts, vol. VI., p. 429. 

t Journal de Pharmacie—quoted in the London Pharmaceutical Journal, for * ebruary, 
1848, p. 394. 





16 


States army, one barrel of flour, or 196 pounds, when in dough, 
contains about. 11 gallons, or 90 pounds of water, 2 gallons of 
yeast, and 3 pounds of salt 3 making a mass of 305 pounds, which 
evaporates in kneading and baking about 40 pounds, leaving in 
bread about 265 pounds; the bread thus exceeding in weight the 
flour employed by about 33.50 per cent. 

Dumas informs us that 130 pounds of the common white bread 
of Paris are obtained from 100 pounds of flour. To this he adds, 
that the flour contains 17 per cent, of water, the produce being 
then equivalent to 150 pounds of bread from 100 pounds of flour.* 
As the American wheat flour seldom contains more than 14 per 
cent, of water, the statement of the quartermaster corresponds 
very nearly with that 0 / the French chemists. The increase of 
weight in the bread over that of the flour, viz: 33.50 per cent., 
ought to afford an ample remuneration for its manufacture. But it 
is not unfrequently the case that larger demands are made by those 
who are engaged in this important branch of art. 

The deficiency in the weight of bread, and the extent of the imposi¬ 
tion practiced in the sale of loaves at a certain price, can, in general, 
be very easily ascertained. For example, the proper weight of the 
shilling loaf (New York currency) maybe determined by reducing 
the price of flour to shillings, and then dividing 196 by this 
amount. Thus, the price of flour being $7 a barrel, (which is a 
sufficiently high average for even the best brands, during the year 
past,) the shilling loaf should weigh three and a half pounds. 
For, 

. 7+8=56; 196-r56=3.50. 

This will leave twenty loaves of the same weight, or $2 50 as the 
profit on the manufacture. 

Although the whiteness of bread is considered as a mark of its 
goodness, it has been ascertained by Professor Johnston that fine 
flour contains a less proportion of nutritive matter than the whole 
meal. The correctness of this view has been confirmed during the 
present investigation; for, in two or three samples of wheat which 
I have analyzed, it was found that the amount of gluten in the 
fine flour was less than in the flour passed through a coarser sieve 
and containing a larger proportion of bran. 

These results, according to Professor Johnston, are to be ac¬ 
counted for on the supposition that the part of the grain which is 
most abundant in starch crushes better and more easily under the 
millstones than that which, being richest in gluten, is probably 
also tougher, and less brittle. They are also consistent with the 
greater nourishment generally supposed to reside in household 
bread, made from the flour of the whole grain.f But such is the 
controlling influence of custom, that it is perhaps in vain to at¬ 
tempt a change, even though its benefits may be clearly proved by 
the researches of science, and by an extensive experience. 

• Boussingault gives the same proportions for the white bread of Paris. But he says, in 
the country, where the bread is less baked, 100 parts of flour give 140, 145 and 146 of bread. 
—Rural Economy, p. 173. 

f Highland Society Transactions, 1847; and Skinner’s Farmers’ Library, vol. III. pp 142 
n<U43, 



17 

ANALYSES OF WHEAT FLOUR. 

Before presenting the details of my analyses, it may not be amiss 
to ofter a few explanations in regard to some researches of a simi¬ 
lar kind, which have heretofore been made. The discrepancies in 
the published results of various analyses arise principally, I appre¬ 
hend, from the different processes which have been employed. 

The table published in Davy’s Agricultural Chemistry gives the 
proportions of gluten or albumen in English Middlesex wheat at 
19.00 per cent.; in Sicilian wheat, 23.90 per cent.; in Poland 
wheat, 20.00 per cent.; and in North American wheat, 22.50. 
The mode pursued by this celebrated chemist has not, so far as 1 
know, been published, but the amount of the nutritive principle is 
larger than that usually obtained, a circumstance which may per¬ 
haps be ascribed to its being imperfectly dried. 

In the table containing the results of Vauquelin’s analyses of 
wheat flours, the proportions of gluten are generally much lower 
than those obtained by Davy. Thus, in common French flour, the 
gluten is 10.96 per cent.; flour of hard Odessa wheat, 14 53 per 
cent.; flour from the bakers of Paris, 10.20 per cent.* * * § 

Boussingault, adopting the plan of determining the amount of 
azotized principles by immediate ultimate analysis, has obtained a 
larger per centage of the nutritive principle than either of the 
above named chemists. Thus he states that the hard African wheat 
contains of gluten and albumen, 26.50 per cent.; Sicilian wheat, 
24.30 per cent.; Dantzic wheat, 22.70 per cent. He gives reasons 
which, to a certain extent, account for the larger quantity of azo- 
tized principles which he found in the samples of flour, and adds, 
“that the varieties of wheat, the flour of which was analyzed, were 
all grown in the rich soil of the garden, a circumstance which, as 
Hermbstadt has shown, exerts the most powerful influence in in¬ 
creasing the quantity of gluten in wheat. 

Dr. Robert D. Thomson has also published the results of several 
analyses of wheat flour. The proportion of the nutritive princi¬ 
ple was deduced from the quantity of ammonia formed from the 
azote contained in the sample. According to this chemist, Canada 
flour contains 13.81 per cent, of the nutritive principle, (gluten 
and albumen;) Lothian flour, 12.30 per cent.; United States flour^ 
11.37 per cent., and another sample of the same, 10.99 per cent.J 
It is not easy to understand why Canadian flour should rank so 
much higher than that from the United States. The sample named 
Canadian flour in the table may have been, in fact, brought from 
this side of the line, for it is stated that our wheat is carried to 
Canada, there ground into flour, and taken to England under Ca¬ 
nadian duty.§ One house at Cleaveland is said to have shipped, 
during the last summer and fall, 36,000 bushels of wheat, which 


• Dumas, Traitd de Chimie Appliquee aux Arts, vol. VI., pp. 388 and 389. 

f Rural Economy, p. 176. 

j London Medical Times, July 29, 1843. 

§ Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1844, p. 400. 

2 




18 


was ground at St. Catharine’s, on the Welland canal, and sent to 
London under contract. 

Mr. Mitchell, in his analyses of various London flours, obtained 
the following proportions of gluten, viz: in fine flour, No. 1, 9.50 
per cent.; in No. 2, 11.40 per cent.; in second flour, No. 1, 8 50 
per cent.; in No. 2, 7.70 per cent.* 

After mature consideration, I determined to adopt the mode of 
analysis which shortly consists in separating the gluten by wash¬ 
ing with cold water, and then subjecting the remaining constitu¬ 
ents of the flour to other operations. I preferred this process, as 
being more easily executed, requiring less apparatus, and less skill 
and nicety of manipulation, than are demanded in the ultimate 
analysis. I have little doubt, moreover, that, for the practical 
purposes of this investigation, it is equally, if not more, accurate; 
for, with all the improvements which have been made in the me¬ 
thod of determining the amount of nitrogen in organic substances, 
It is not yet free from difficulties. I may also add that the ultimate 
analysis fails to give us any information concerning the peculiar 
nature of the gluten—a point which is, perhaps, of as much conse¬ 
quence in settling the real value of flour as the amount of that 
principle. 

The different steps of the analyses have, in all cases, been con¬ 
ducted with as much uniformity as possible; one important object 
being to furnish a table of results which should at least show the 
relative value of the different samples subjected to trial. 

All the samples from abroad were received in tin boxes or glass 
bottles carefully closed, so as to prevent the access of external 
air. Thus, whether damaged or not, they w T ere probably in nearly 
the same condition when they came into my hands as they were 
when put up. 

In proceeding with the analysis, 100 grains of the flour were put 
into a small Berlin ware capsule, which had been previously coun¬ 
terpoised in a delicate balance. The capsule, with its contents, 
was then placed in a water-bath drying oven, and subjected to a 
heat of about 212° Fahrenheit, for from three to six or seven hours, 
or until after rapid ^weighing there was found to be no further 
diminution of weight. The proportion of water in the sample >vas 
thus determined by the weight required again to balance the cap¬ 
sule and its contents.f 

A weighed portion of the flour, usually 100 grains, was next 
carefully kneaded into a stiff paste or dough by the cautious addi¬ 
tion of pure water, and the dough thus formed allowed to remain 
m the cup for a few minutes. A fine linen cloth was stretched 
over the top of a bolting cloth sieve, and this again placed in a 
large Berlin ware dish. The dough was now washed on the hand 
- over the sieve and cloth with a small stream of water, and gently 


• Treatise on the Falsifications of Food, &c., pp. 46 and 47. 

f I have lately employed a small paper tray instead of the capsule. It is equally conve^ 
lent, and the drying is more rapidly effected. 




19 


kneaded, from time to time, until all the starchy particles and the 
soluble matters were removed. The tough gluten was washed 
until the water ceased to become milky, and after being carefully 
pressed out by the fingers was subjected to the heat of a water- 
bath until perfectly dry, an operation which sometimes occupied 
10 or 12 hours. It was then weighed while warm and the amount 
noted. 

A sufficient quantity of water was now poured upon the linen 
cloth to carry down the starch, while any small particles of gluten, 
washed off during the operation, were added to the mass. In those 
cases where the flour contained any considerable proportion of 
bran, the latter substance was found upon the linen cloth. 

The turbid washings were allowed to remain in the vessel until 
the whole of the starch was deposited. The supernatant liquor 
was then removed by a pipette, the starch again washed, and the 
wash water removed as before. The starch was now dried, sub¬ 
jected to the heat of the water-bath to expel all the water, and 
then quickly weighed. The clear liquor, removed from the starch, 
was evaporated at a boiling heat to near dryness, the complete 
dessieation being effected at a temperature of about 220° or 230° 
Fahrenheit. In some cases, a few flocks, probably albumen, were 
observed floating in the liquid during the evaporation, but the 
quantity was usually so small that I did not attempt to separate it. 
The residuum thus obtained was principally a mixture of sweet and 
gummy matter, with small proportions of woody fibre and saline 
substances. As I ascertained that the sugar was the variety called 
glucose, or grape sugar, and the gummy constituent was supposed 
to be dextrine, I have placed all the results of the evaporation of 
the clear liquor under these two heads. 

I may remark, that the gluten obtained by this process contains 
a small* quantity of an oily matter, which I supposed to be about 
equal to that of the albumen in the clear solution separated from 
the starch. The proportions of gluten given in the following an¬ 
alysis will, therefore, very nearly represent the amount of nutritive 
matters contained in the various samples. 

In most cases I carried out the analysis to the end, obtaining and 
weighing the several substances; but as the principal object was to 
determine the quantity and quality of gluten, the process was oc¬ 
casionally stopped at this point. In a few other instances the pro¬ 
portions of gluten, glucose and dextrine, were determined directly, 
while the quantity of starch was estimated by difference. 

For convenience of reference, the analysis are arranged under 
the head of the several States from whence the specimens were ob¬ 
tained. I regret that the number received from the south is so 
small, as I was very anxious to exhibit in one view the relative 
quantities of nutritive matter in the northern and southern flours. 
Should the investigation be continued, this point will claim my 
earliest attention. 

Several varieties of wheat, sent from Amsterdam, have been an¬ 
alyzed, (after being ground to fine flour,) principally fpr the pur¬ 
pose of comparing the results with those obtained from the samples 

from the United States, 


20 

RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES. 


NEW JERSEY. * 

I. Sample of wheat flour purchased at a store in New Bruns 


wick. 

Water. 12.75 

Gluten*. 10.90 

Starch. 70.20 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 6.15 


100.00 


II. Sample of wheat flour purchased at a store in New Bruns¬ 


wick. 

Water. 12.35 

Gluten. 8.31 

Starch, glucose and dextrine...... 79.34 


100.00 


The gluten was inelastic, as well as reduced in quantity. The 
flour had suffered by constant exposure, while sold at retail during 
the summer. This is almost invaricbly the result of this mode of 
selling flour, as it is scarcely possible to prevent the deteriorating 
action of air and moisture. But the extent of the injury which 
sometimes occurs, is no doubt due to the carelessness of the seller. 

NEW YORK. 

III. Wheat flour from pure Genesee wheat. P.FGarbut ? s mills, 


Wheatland, Monroe county. (From Mr. E. A. Durant, Albany, 
N. Y.) 

Water. 13.35 

Gluten. 12.82 

Starch. 68.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c,. 6.50 


100.67 

IY. Wheat flour branded “Excelsior,” manufactured expressly 
for Messrs. Lay & Craft, Albany, N. Y. From extra pure Genesee 
wheat, Rochester, N. Y. (From Messrs. Lay & Craft, Albany, 


N. Y.) 

Water. 12.40 

Gluten..... 11.46 

Search. 70.20 

Glucose, dextrine, &c..... ... 5.20 


99.26 


* It is to be understood that the gluten is of good quality, unless otherwise stated. 































21 


V. Wheat flour with the brand ‘‘Julian Mills, from new wheat,” 
(1848,) extra superfine, Genesee; J. B. Chipman. (From Albany, 


N. Y.) 

Water... 12.50 

Gluten. 11.75 

Starch. 70.10 

Glucose, dextrine, &c.... 5.50 


99.85 


YI. Wheat flour, with brand “Super extra, Genesee, Lake Mills, 
Port Byron, N. Y., J. H. Beach.” (From Messrs. Hewitt & Co., 


Albany, N. Y.) 

Water. 13.60 

Gluten. 12.00 

Starch .. 67.60 s 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. *. 6.80 


100.00 


The gluten was of a very fine quality. Except for the larger 
proportion of water, this is one of the best samples from New 
York. 

VII. Wheat flour, branded “Pure Genesee flour, Granite Mills.” 
(From Messrs. Reed & Rawls, Albany, New York.) 

Water.*.. • • 13.00 

Gluten.. • • • ... 11.90 

Starch......• * 67.20 

Glucose, dextrine, &c.... 6.90 

99.00 


OHIO. 


VIII. Extra pastry flour, 
worth, Zanesville. (From 
York.) 

Water... 

Gluten ...... .. 

Starch.. ...••• • 

Glucose, dextrine, &c...< 


manufactured by Beaumont & Hollings- 
Messrs Lay & Craft, Albany, New 

, ..... . 12.85 

. 14.25 

. 67.06 

5.98 


100.14 

This is a remarkable sample, the gluten being not only in large 
proportion, but of a very fine quality. I regret that I have been 
unable to obtain any information m regard to the variety of wheat 
from which the flour was manufactured. If grown in Ohio it must 
jjtave been the produce of a very rich soil, 




























22 

IX. Flour from Ohio, wheat ground in Ohio. (From Mr. Johc 
S. Smith, Albany, New York.) 

Water. 12.00 

Gluten. 11.90 

Starch. 68.57 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 6.95 


99.42 


X. Wheat dour, branded “Empire Mills, Roscoe, Ohio.'* (From 
Messrs. Reed & Rawls, Albany, New York.) 

Water. 13.00 

Gluten..... 10.00 

Starch. 70.20 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 6.80 

» > f • • * • • • * v « i * 

100.00 


The gluten was of a good quality, but in smaller proportion 
than in the other Ohio samples. The flour was very finely ground, 
which may, in part account for the difference. 

XI. Wheat flour, from cargo shipped on board Venice, Venice 
Mills, Xenia, Ohio. (From the Collector at Buffalo, New York.) 

Water. 12.36 

Gluten. 12.60 

Starch, glucose, dextrine, &c (by diflf.). 75.04 


100.00 


INDIANA. 

XII. Flour from Indiana wheat (1848.) Branded “Forrest Mills 
(Logansport,) extra-superfine, W. Beach.” (From Messrs. Hewit 
& Co., Albany, New York.) 

Water. 12.85 

Gluten. 11.90 

Starch. 67.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c.•••••• .. 8.25 


100.00 


XIII. Flour from Indiana wheat (1847.) Branded “ Forrest 
Mills, (Logansport,) extra-superfine, W. Beach.” (From Albany, 
New York.) 






























23 




Water. 13.00 

Gluten. 7.00 

Starch. 67.80 

Glucose, dextrine, &...... .... 11.30 


99.10 
===== 0 

This safnple was sour, and I was informed that it was in this 
condition when it arrived at Albany early in the spring of 1848. 
As it was probably ground during the previous autumn, and had 
not therefore been exposed to summer heat, it must have been put 
in barrels without due attention to its dryness. The gluten was 
not only reduced in quantity, but had entirely lost its elasticity, 
breaking up, during the washing, into shreds which were removed 
from the linen cloth. A portion of the soluble part, placed under 
glucose and dextrine, was probably lactic acid, to which the acidity 
is to be ascribed. The loss which occurred upon this cargo of 
flour might have been saved by the employment of the kiln-drying 
process previously noticed. 

XIV. Wheat flour, from a cargo shipped on board the schooner 
Amelia, from Delhi, Indiana. (From the collector at Buffalo, New 
York.) 


Water.. 

Gluten .... .... 
Starch, glucose, 
Bran*. 


dextrine, &c. (by diff.) 


11.78 

11.30 

76.37 

0.55 


100.00 


ILLINOIS. 


XY. Wheat flour, branded “Oswego flour,” but said to have been 
ground from Chicago wheat. (From Messrs. Reed & Rawls, Al¬ 
bany, New York.) 


Water. 

Gluten. 

Starch. 

Glucose, dextrine, &c 
Bran... 


12.90 

11.25 

66.00 

8.60 

1.25 


100.00 


This flour was of a dark color, and said to be scarcely fit to pass 
inspection. But the gluten was of an excellent quality, and its 
proportion was above the average of the western samples. 1 attri¬ 
bute this partly to the very fact which rendered it doubtful to the 
inspector, viz: its being coarsely ground, and thus containing a 
larger proportion of the whole meal. 

* In many cases the quantity of bran was so very small, that I did not think it worth 
while to institute a separate process for its determination. 


























24 


XVI. Wheat flour, from a cargo shipped on board the steamboat 
America, from Rock river, Illinois. (From the collector at Buffa¬ 
lo, N. Y.) 

Water. 13.87 

Gluten. 9.90 

Starch, glucose, dextrine, &c., (by diff.,). *75.88 

Bran .. .. 0.35 


100.00 


MICHIGAN. 

XVII. Flo-ur, from Michigan wheat, ground at Livingstor 

mills, Michigan. (From Mr. E. A. Durant, Albany, N. Y.) 

Water.. 14.05 

Gluten. 10.35 

Starch. 68.35 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 7.14 


99.89 

|| I # ft I >>*«»•) + + , • ♦ 0 I > * - • 

XVIII. Wheat flour from the Bruce mills, Michigan. (From 
ffessrs. Reed & Rawls, Albany, N. Y.) 

Water.......... 13.20 

Gluten. 11.85 

Starch. 65.60 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 8.60 

Bran. 0.45 


99.70 


I attribute the relative richness of this sample to its not being so 
finely ground as some others. 

XIX. Wheat flour, from a cargo shipped on board the steamer 
Clinton, from Monroe, Michigan. (From the collector at Buffalo. 
N. Y.) 

Water..... 13.10 

Gluten... *. 10.40 

Starch, glucose, dextrine, &c., (by diff.,). 76.30 

Bran. 0.20 


100.00 































25 


WISCONSIN. 

XX. Flour from Wisconsin wheat, ground in Wisconsin. (Fro 
Mr. John S. Smith, Albany, N. Y.) 

Water.*. . 13.80 

Gluten. 10.85 

Starch.. 67.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c... 8.33 


99.98 


XXI. Wheat flour, from the Solon mills, Wisconsin. (From 
essrs. Lay & Craft, Albany, N. Y.) 

Water. 12.30 

Gluten. 10.40 

Starch . 68.50 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. ... 8.60 


99.80 


Delaware, from Milwaukie, Wisconsin. (From the collector at 
Buffalo, N. Y.) 

Water. 12.75 

Gluten. 9.85 

Starch. 66.02 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 11.05 

Bran. 0.33 


100.00 

This sample had suffered some deterioration. The amount of 
gluten was diminished, and it was of an inferior quality. The pro¬ 
portion of soluble matters was correspondingly increased. 

GEORGIA. 

XXIII. Wheat flour, from Floyd county, Georgia. (From W. 
B. Bullock, esquire, collector at Savannah.) 

Water. 11.75 

Gluten.*. 14.36 

Starch. 68.93 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 4.96 

100.00 


The analysis of this sample fully confirms the correctness of the 
prevailing opinion concerning the superior richness of the southern 

































26 


flour. The sample of Georgia wheat received with the preceding, 
when opened during the summer, was found to be filled with a dark 
colored beetle, the weevil, (calandra granaria.) The insect was 
about one-eighth of an inch in length, and entirely resembled that 
described by W. Gaylord, esquire*, as occurring in a sample of 
Mediterranean wheat.* Some of the kernels were entirely con¬ 
sumed, and had nothing but the chaff remaining. It was curious 
to see the manner in which these insects simulated death when dis¬ 
turbed, or when I endeavored to remove them from the wheat and 
to place them under an inverted test glass. It is said that if the 
wheat be kiln-dried, the weevil is effectually destroyed. 

WEST INDIES. 

Two samples were received from Turks Island, from John T. 
Pickett, esquire, American consul. One of them had not suffered 
from the voyage—the other was injured. 

XXIY. Wheat flour from Turks Island, labelled iC from New 
York, 1 Oswego mills;’ 20 days at sea, and about 15 days here.” 


Water. ....... 12.60 

Gluten ....... . .. 12.70 

Starch..... ...... 66.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c.... 8.50 


99.80 


This flour was in good condition, and the gluten was of an ex¬ 
cellent quality. It is one of the best samples of New York flour, 
and must have been put up with great care. 

XXY. Wheat flour from Turks Island, labelled u from Balti¬ 
more, via St. Thomas; 10 days on shore there and four months at 
this place; c Western mills;’ inspection of 1848.” 


Water. 12.60 

Gluten. 11.90 

Starch. 63.30 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 11.30 


99.10 


This flour had an unpleasant, musty smell, and was filled with 
insects about one-sixth of an inch in length, probably a species of 
weevil. The gluten was of a dark color, and although its elastici¬ 
ty was not destroyed, it had undergone some change. Although 
not actually sour, it became so by a short exposure in contact with 
water. A portion of the starch had been changed into dextrine by 


* Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society for 1843, p. 143. 



















21 


the incipient fermentation. This flour must have been originally 
very rich in gluten; but it had been subjected to a severe trial, as 
is evident from the label. 

HOLLAND, RUSSIA, AND POLAND. 

One sample of wheat flour, and sundry boxes of wheat from 
Holland, Russia, and Poland, were received from P. A. Bundten, 
broker, Amsterdam. They were all in excellent condition, but I 
regret that the time when the wheat was harvested was not added. 
I infer from my analyses, perhaps incorrectly, that all other things 
being equal, wheat is more liable to suffer a diminution in the 
quantity of gluten than wheat flour. I shall hereafter pursue this 
point in reference to our American samples, as it seems to me to 
be of great practical importance. 

The specimens of wheat were all carefully ground in a hand 
mill, and then passed through the finest bolting cloth. The flour 
thus obtained usually had from one to one and a half per cent, of 
bran; but, as I supposed this to be owing to the mode of grinding* 
&c., which I was obliged to employ, the amount was deducted, and 
the calculations of the proportions of the other constituents made 
accordingly. 

XXVI. Flour from Zealand wheat (received in the form of 


flour.) 

Water... 13.30 

Gluten. 12.50 

Starch. 67.50 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 6.20 

Bran ...... ...... .................... 0.50 


100.00 


This flour was coarsely ground, but it was of an excellent 
quality. 


XXVII. 

Flour from Poland wheat. 







. 68.15 

Glucose, 


. 7.60 


100.00 


XXVIII. Flour from Zealand wheat. 


Water. 

Gluten.. • 

Starch.. 

Glucose, dextrine, &c ....... • •& **• 


13.40 

10.25 

69.65 

6.70 


100.00 

























28 


XXIX. Flour from soft Petersburg wheat. 


Water.. 13.20 

Gluten. 11.00 

Starch. 69.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 6.80 


100.00 


This is a red wheat, with a very small berry. The gluten is suf¬ 
ficiently elastic, but of a very dark color. An inferior var ety, 
and one which would be little valued in this country. 

XXX. Flour from Friesland wheat. 


Water. 13.90 

Gluten.... . . 10.00 

Starch .. 69.75 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 6.10 


99.75 


XXXI. Flour from red Poland wheat, imported by Odessa. The 
first column exhibits the amount of gluten in the flour more coarsely 
ground than in the second, which was very fine. 


W ater...... ...... .. 

One. 

Two. 

13.30 
9 95 
7 25 
9.50 

Gliitpn .... ........ 

.. 10.80 

Starch... 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 


Rrnn .. 

. 0 QO 

100.00 


The gluten was of a good quality, but dark colored when dry. 


XXXII. Flour from Kubanka wheat, imported by Russia. I 
made two analyses, the first of the more coarsely ground flour. 


Water... 

One. 

Two. 

Gluten... .. 


14.75 


Starch. 59.65 

Glucose, dextrine, &c. 9.00 


Bran.... 


1.95 


99.90 


This very remarkable variety of wheat, I suppose to have been 
grown on the Kuban river in southern Russia. It has a very thick 
husk and yields a yellowish flour, not unlike maize meal. Pallas 
describes a variety of Greek or Arnaut wheat sown on the coast of 
the sea of Azof, which agrees with this very nearly. It u has a 
































29 


large bright yellow grain somewhat transparent, and is, in preference 
to any other, exported to Turkey and Italy. It yields a yellowish, 
very savory flour, that is in much request for making maccaroni; it 
requires, however, a very rich soil.’ 5 * 

This wheat seems to me to be worthy of a trial in the United 
States. If under our culture it should yield the proportion of 
gluten above stated, it would be of great value. The color of the 
flour might perhaps be an objection to its use for making bread, but 
it would answer well for the manufactures of maccaroni and vermi¬ 
celli. 

XXXIII. Flour from Kubanka wheat, imported by Odessa. 


Water..... 12.35? 

Gluten ... 15.25 

Starch, glucose, dextrine, &c... 71.10 

Bran ....... 1.30 


100.00 


The wheat and flour of this sample are similar in appearance to 
the preceding. It seems to be equally rich in gluten. 


* Pallas’s Travels in the Southern Provinces of Russia, vol. II., p. 386. 













Table exhibiting the composition of various samples of American and Joreign wheat flour ^ by Lewis C. Beck , M. D. 


30 





























































00*001 





31 


o o o 

00 — o 


ooo 
O o 


• o 

• 05 


O 

o 


050)0000050 

050)0000050 


• 05 f 
•05 s 


• • • • • 

0 VO • • • • 

• • • • • 


o 

CO 


O C* »" *-• 


■ O O K 
* 05 05 O. 


cooooooooo 


o 

o 


■^roo — O t— O O O O) 


eoooommoinin • in 
ffiC««"®Ot'(M • SO 
««••••••••• 

00©«N(K 05 05 05 N *05 

• in 


o 

i—< 


SCOOOiOinoOinOOin 
Cf. t'Ol«®WOOO)QOOh 
• ••••••••••* 

rPW-'MOO-'O05O®^ 

T— l-H 1—I 1—I 1—I »—I 1—I >— 1 1—« '— ^ 1—< 


<N 

m 


Vft O O O O O O O O • Id 
hCtCMOrfiNOSCO • CO 

■*-re^C)COCOOOCV5COW) • <N 

T—< >—1—HI—1 • T—I 


in 

CO 

ci 


o * 

*-•5, 

13 

!z <= 


® X 

© 2 

’ll 

3 h— )—< 


(Bt u 

£r « 
o ® 


O 


c * 
SJ 
o 

® on 

i- 

O 3 


- ~ as 


££ &Z. S-o 5 

i«t3 'O h-s C —< 


<T3 © 

c -a 

03 ^ 

SJ 

3 0) 

hN 

a a s a 
2 2 £ £ 
?*< Pm 


3 
3 ® 
© -3 

-E ‘ 


"0 
•3 C 
3 3 

a "3 

o ® 

0hn 


3 

© 

3= 

* _ 
fcC M 

S- © 

3 •£ 
E2 E> 
on ^ 

© 

C 

© cj 
Q. (—h 
^ 03 
— O 
*—• T 
c r 

« Ph 


© 

V) 

2* 

35 

C 

o 


40 

o 


u- 

c 


* • 




-T3 o 
E T3 
3 • 

2: 

• 

T3 * 
© O 

"*Q 


3 • 

© . 

2 

3 * 
3«S * 


3 

.E 

3 

w 


s s 2 s a 

£ £2 2 2 


O 

P 



3 

© 

£ 

3 

E 

3 

32 

3 

W 


O 

%- 

t*H 


K 















• *r 9 



























































LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



0 014 359 667 9 % 


# 



■■ ^' * 9 n w' 


















t rl j 





«• 




V* 


4 - • 






















































